When to use this
Use frequencies for categorical or ordinal distributions and crosstabs for the joint distribution of two categorical variables.
Why it matters
The denominator determines what a percentage means; missing cases can make total and valid percentages differ.
Step-by-step instructions
1. Select Frequencies or Crosstabs.
2. Choose variables.
3. Decide whether a missing category belongs in a crosstab.
4. Review counts before percentages.
5. Use Categorical Inference separately when a test is justified.
Expected outputs
Counts, total percentages, valid percentages, ordinal cumulative valid percentages, and row/column/total crosstab percentages.
How to interpret the results
Valid percentages divide by nonmissing observations. Total percentages divide by all rows. Row and column percentages answer different conditional questions.
Common mistakes
Do not add cumulative percentages for nominal categories. Do not interpret a descriptive crosstab as inferential evidence.
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